rajatarangini was translated into persian by

Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. Kalhana () (c. 12th century CE), a Kashmiri Brahmin, was the author of Rajatarangini, and is regarded as Kashmir's first historian. Turn on. What was the content of the text the Rajatarangini? Match words . The most glorious period of the Lodi Dynasty was the ruling period of Sikander Lodi. Eventually a Pratapaditya, a relative of Vikrmaditya (not the Shakari) became king (II.6). According to D. C. Sircar, Kalhana has confused the legendary Vikramaditya of Ujjain with the Vardhana Emperor Harsha (c. 606-47 CE). From the regulation of commodities to the reviving of old crafts, Abidin did everything for overall development of Kashmir and his subjects. Although inaccurate in its chronology, the book still provides an invaluable source of information about early Kashmir and its neighbors in the north western parts of the Indian subcontinent, and has been widely referenced by later historians and ethnographers. [21][25] However, Sikandar was also the first Kashmiri ruler to convert destroyed temples into Islamic shrines, and such a display of supremacy probably had its origins in religious motivations. [18] Iinternal rebellions were ably suppressed. Rajatarangini, (Sanskrit: River of Kings) historical chronicle of early India, written in Sanskrit verse by the Kashmiri Brahman Kalhana in 1148, that is justifiably considered to be the best and most authentic work of its kind. After a couple of generations a Vijaya from another family took the throne (II.62). Like the Shahnameh is to Persia, the Rajatarangini is to Kashmir. Unreliable Sources - The chronicles include those of Tahir, Haidar Malik, Rafiu'd Din Ahmad and Muhammad A'azam. Abu 'l-Fadl Allami, Nizam al-Din and Firishta also state that Shah Mir traced his descent to Arjuna, the basis of their account being Jonaraja's Rajatarangini, which Mulla Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni translated into Persian at Akbar's orders. We have migrated to a new commenting platform. [5] Some of the kings and dynasties can be identified with inscriptions and the histories of the empires that periodically included the Kashmir valley, but for long periods the Rajatarangini is the only source. Kalhana himself, notwithstanding, doesnt appear to have worked for any ruler. Son of Hiranyakula. Nevertheless, multiple scholars identify Kalhana's Ashoka with the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Rajatarangini s first translation into a foreign language was as long ago as in the first decade of the 13th century, by Haidar Malik into Persian. The relative We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Cite earlier authors: The oldest extensive works containing the royal chronicles [of Kashmir] have become fragmentary in consequence of [the appearance of] Suvrata's composition, who condensed them in order that (their substance) might be easily remembered. Expelled several irreligious Brahmins who used to eat garlic (non-. Jonaraja became a Kashmiri antiquarian and Sanskrit writer. It covers the whole range of history in the Kashmir district from the earliest times to the date of its synthesis. He erected a monument at. Rajatarangini ("The River of Kings") is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western part of India, particularly the kings of Kashmir. and is known in general as a publisher willing to take chances with nontraditional Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBalochRafiq1998 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchimmel1980 (, Last edited on 23 February 2023, at 23:00, Baharistan-i-Shahi Chapter 3 EARLY SHAHMIRS, "Buddhism and Islam in Kashmir as Represented by Rjataragi Authors", "This book claims to expose the myths behind Kashmir's history. In 1574 Akbar started a Maktab Khana or a house of translation works in Fatehpur Sikri. The capital of India shift from Kolkata to New Delhi in the year 1911. [7] Romila Thapar equates Jalauka to Kunala, stating that "Jalauka" is an erroneous spelling caused by a typographical error in Brahmi script. A Shaivite during whose reigns Buddhists also flourished. A virtuous king, he was seduced and killed by a woman named Vatta, along with several of his sons and grandsons. Died young. Verse 7. Son of Lalitapida and Jayadevi, made the king by his maternal uncle Utpalaka. This Vikramaditya is not same as the, Shared the administration with his queen. Rajatarangini . In our own time, the Kashmiri Sanskrit scholar and former diplomat A.N.D. The earliest reference to the Kambojas is around the 5th century BCE. His son Kshemagupta married Didda, daughter of Simharaja of Lohara. However, the intent of the translations has been insufficiently analyzed in the context of the interrelationship between Orientalist and nationalist projects and the historical and literary ideas that informed them. Son of Vijaya: his "long arms reached to his knees". The first translation of a portion of the Rajatarangini was carried out in Persian, at the behest of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (1421-1472) A.D of Kashmir. In later years of his reign, he started patronizing unwise persons, and the wise courtiers deserted him. For example, Ranaditya is given a reign of 300 years. Kalhana's account closes in the 22nd year of his reign. Rajatarangini, Telugu translation by Renduchintala Lakshmi Narasimha Sastry, This page was last edited on 14 November 2022, at 18:27. Its apt choice of kavya (poetry), as felicitously described by Shonaleeka Kaul, makes for a versatile and flexible mode that can entertain the mythic and the folk alongside classical and conventionalised registers of imagination and representation. The Himalayan area of Kashmir is an intermontane valley shaped by the stream Jhelum (antiquated name Vitasta), a feeder of the waterway Indus. Toramana is clearly the Huna king of that name, but his father Mihirakula is given a date 700 years earlier. The minister was persecuted, and ultimately imprisoned because of rumors that he would succeed the king. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. Render date: 2023-03-04T12:29:12.553Z The Rajatarangini is a Sanskrit account of the various monarchies of Kashmir, prior to the advent of Islam. Rajatarangini was translated into Persian by Zain-ul-Abidin order. [3] The work consists of 7826 verses, which are divided between eight books called tarangas ("waves"). In principle, it is for three reasons, specifically, the texts regard to sequence, causation, and (affirmed) objectivity, that European Orientalist researchers who concentrated on the text from the mid-nineteenth century onwards, called the Rajatarangini the solo work of history legitimate to rise out of old India. Made his brother Sussala the ruler of Lohara. Notes: Rajatarangini is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir. 1 Who translated Rajatarangini in Kashmiri? But his traditional conceptual framework, using uncritical assumptions and a belief in the role of the poet as an exponent of moral maxims, makes the idealizing content in his narrative, particularly for the early period, rather dominant. Son of Durlabhavardhana and Anangalekha. 3 Who was the last king of Gonanda dynasty? Sample translated sentence: Heill on sen thden puhdas asema Jehovan edess. He tried to abduct a Nga woman, who was the wife of a Brahmin. He is most remembered for his Advaita Vedantist text, the Dasbodh. He filled his court with, Shreshtasena (Pravarasena I / Tungjina II), According to Kalhana, the emperor Vikramditya (alias Harsha) of, Younger brother of Vikramaditya. Despite these stated principles, Kalhana's work is also full of legends and inconsistencies (see Historical reliability below). The author of the Rajatarangini history chronicles the rulers of the valley from earliest times, from the epic period of the Mahbhrata to the reign of Sangrama Deva (c.1006 CE), before the Muslim era. . In that officials, Abul Fazi translated Ramayana into Persian. After ruling indirectly and directly, Didda (9801003 CE) placed Samgrmarja, son of her brother on the throne, starting the Lohara dynasty. section. The Loharas ruled for many generations. a 12th century CE writer can be a piece essential in understanding the historical backdrop of Kashmir. This article examines two translations of the textone "Orientalist" and the other "nationalist"with the purpose of interrogating these categories, by drawing out the complex engagement between European and indigenous ideas, and the dialogue between past and present that informed their production. Son of Parvagupta and husband of Didda (a member of the. The Mahabharata and Kalhana's Rajatarangini were translated into Persian by his order. This page was last modified on 1 January 2016, at 03:52. Rajatarangini was composed by Kalhana, scion of a noble family of Kashmir. In 1574, Akbar started an Maktab Khana or a house of translation works in his new capital of Fatehpur Sikri. He called back the Hindus who left Kashmir during his father's reign. Verse 13. Compared to translations in other languages, Raman Menons craft is remarkable for its lucidity and elegance. [18] Waqfs were endowed to shrines, mosques were commissioned, numerous Sufi preachers were provided with jagirs and installed in positions of authority, and feasts were regularly held. Book VII brings the narrative to the death of King Harsha (1101), and Book VIII deals with the stormy events between the death of Harsha and the stabilization of authority under Kalhanas contemporary Jayasimha (reigned 112849). Deposed his half-brother to become the king, but died after a week. According to Kalhana, Ashoka reigned before 1182 BCE, and was a member of the dynasty founded by Godhara. However, the intent of the translations has been insufficiently analyzed in the context of the interrelationship between Orientalist and nationalist projects and the historical and literary ideas that informed them. Deposed by Tantrin soldiers, who had earlier served as the royal bodyguards. [5] According to Jonaraja, Shah Mir was the descendant of Partha It covers the whole range of history in the Kashmir district from the earliest times to the date of its synthesis. After that, the English translation. Translation of " " into Persian . The chronicles only start to align with other evidence by book IV. Contextual translation of "poyu ta" from Persian into Tagalog. Writing of Rajatarangini in the introduction to his 1935 English translation of this twelfth-century Sanskrit narrative by Kalhana, R. S. Pandit described it as a "poem of great scope, a more or less complete picture of society, in which the bloody periods of the past are delightfully relieved by delicate tales of love, by episodes of marvel Rajatarangini belongs. European Orientalist researchers who concentrated on the text from the mid-nineteenth century onwards called the Rajatarangini the solo work of history legitimate to rise out of old India. (Stay up to date on new book releases, reviews, and more with The Hindu On Books newsletter. Pratapaditya was a relative of a distant king named Vikrmaditya (II.6). Subsequent English translations of Kalhana's Rajatarangini include: Several books containing legendary stories from Rajatarangini have been compiled by various authors. The work consists of 7826 verses, which are divided into eight books called Tarangas (waves). He showed shockingly progressed specialised mastery for the time in his anxiety for offbeat sources. [citation needed], He was the next Sultan of Kashmir. [4] It has also been suggested that he belonged to a family which accompanied the sage Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, and who were associated to either the Kubrawiya Sufi groups in Kashmir. What 3 things do you do when you recognize an emergency situation? He called back the Hindus who had left Kashmir during his father reign and allowed building of temples. 0 0 Similar questions Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. He endorsed the work to a few officials to make translations of the Sanskrit books Rajatarangini, Ramayana and Mahabharata into the Persian language. [4] It is known, however, that Mihirakula was the son of Toramana. He was known by his subjects as Bod Shah or Budshah (lit. The work generally records the heritage of Kashmir, but 120 verses of Rjatarangi describe the misrule prevailing in Kashmir during the reign of King Kalash, son of King Ananta Deva of Kashmir. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. For example, Kalhana has highly exaggerated the military conquests of Lalitaditya Muktapida.[18][19]. Youngest son of Vajradjtya II. Devout Shaivite. [clarification needed], From Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core, Koenraad Elst: Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate 1999, https://infogalactic.com/w/index.php?title=Rajatarangini&oldid=559022, Articles needing expert attention with no reason or talk parameter, Articles needing expert attention from November 2008, Articles with disputed statements from March 2012, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2011, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, About Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core. Haksar captured the mystique of Indias coordinates in this couplet: The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". Some of the architectural projects commissioned by the dynasty in Kashmir include: Tomb of the Mother of Zain-ul-Abidin in Srinagar. For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. Salhana was deposed and imprisoned. Kalhana describes Shamkaravarman (883902) thus (Stein's trans. Eleven works of former scholars containing the chronicles of the kings, I have inspected, as well as the [Purana containing the] opinions of the sage Nila. Toromanu is clearly the Huna king of that name, but his father Mihirakula is given a date 700 years earlier. According to the historical evidence, Lalitaditya Muktapida ruled during the 8th century. Sandhimati was selected by the citizens as the new ruler. [15], Sultan Shamsu'd-Din Shah was succeeded by his elder son Sultan Jamshid who ruled for a year and two months. Verse 11. Skipping over "lost kings" we come to Lava of an unknown family. He also got the Mahabharata and Rajatarangini. Since the battle was motive-less for the Delhi Sultanate peace concluded between them on a condition that all the territories from Sirhind to Kashmir belong to the Shah Mir empire. Son of Sangramapida II. Download our apps to start learning, Call us and we will answer all your questions about learning on Unacademy. Jogesh Chandra Dutt in the late 19th century. Kalhana was a poet. Kalhana was excellently equipped for the work. If you do not have an account please register and login to post comments. Madurai is one of the major cities in the Indian State of Tamil Nadu. The author Kalhana was a son of a minister of Harsha of this family. Zianu-l Abidin of Kashmir deputed the famous Sanskrit scholar Jonaraja and Srivara for the completion of Rajatarangini to bring the history of Kashmir up-to-date. Rajatarangini/Original languages This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. His Dvity Rjataragin can be a continuation of Kalhanas Rjataragin and brings the annal of the rulers of Kashmir proper right down to the hour of the creators supporter Zain-ul-Abidin. Taking action accordingly, regardless of initiating Kalhana an extraordinary student of history, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar2 discussed his exceptionally faulty strategy comprising in consideration of legendary or amazing lords, an ignorant religiosity in the Epics and Puranas (antiquated Indian kinds portraying the previous), confidence in black magic and sorcery, clarification of occasions as because of the impact of destiny instead of to any normal reason, an overall instructional propensity roused by Hindu perspectives on karma, and simple showcase of poetical and logical expertise. Romila Thapar additionally excused Kalhanas moralism and teaching. From the Pen of Jonarja, Court Pait to Suln Zayn al-bidn. Accordingly, translation was no longer confined solitary to an isolated linguistic context and the socio-cultural aspects of translation were emphasized. Verse 14. An unpopular king, he was killed. During his reign, the Mlechchhas (possibly, According to historical evidence, Mihirakula's predecessor was. Brought up by, Within 6months of Bhikshachara's ascension, Sussala recovered his capital, leading to a civil war. It is the 25th most populated city in India, located on the banks of River Vaigai. Built a great city called Srinagara (near but not same as the modern-day. The. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Verse 15. Rajatarangini in Scholarship The most widely known Rajatarangini (River of Kings) - and the one on which the English translations discussed here are based - is a Sanskrit narrative by Kalhana Pandit dating to 1148-49 AD.1 It is written in verse in the Sanskrit kavya style and divided into eight cantos (or tarangas ), which number close to 8,000 . Gonandiya Baladitya made his officer in charge of fodder, Durlabhavardhana (III.489) his son-in-law because he was handsome. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". The Journal of Asian Studies Kalhana says that Samdhimat Aryaraja used to spend the most delightful Kashmir summer in worshiping a lingam formed of snow/ice in the regions above the forests (II.138). His son Kshemagupta married Didda, daughter of Simharaja of Lohara. He abdicated the throne, and a became a hermit to seek peace. In principle, it is for three reasons, specifically, the texts regard to sequence, causation, and (affirmed) objectivity, that European Orientalist researchers who concentrated on the text from the mid-nineteenth century onwards, called the. [6] Although "Jina" is a term generally associated with Jainism, some ancient sources use it to refer to the Buddha. Its heyday was the 13th and 14th centuries, broadly the period straddling the phase of Sanskrit literature to which His descendant Meghavahana later restored the dynasty's rule. Verse 12. The Himalayan area of Kashmir is an intermontane valley shaped by the stream Jhelum (antiquated name Vitasta), a feeder of the waterway Indus. Kalhana wrote it was brilliantly prepared for the work. Does adding salt to water increase conductivity? Kashmira Kerala paryanthaamganatantrenashasssitam, Rakshayantujanaasarve, ekachhatramimaammaheem (From Kashmir to Kerala extending and governed by democracy, may all the people protect this lands sovereign unity). It covers the entire span of history in the Kashmir region from the earliest times to the date of its composition. Sanskrit How do people make money on survival on Mars? Another television serial based on this work has been completed by National Award winning director, Jyoti Sarup. [15], Sultan Alau'd-Din's two sons became kings in succession, Sultan Shihabu'd-Din and Sultan Qutbu'd-Din. His writing is full of literary devices and allusions, concealed by his unique and elegant style. Here, the emperor's top scribes and secretaries were given the task of translating a range of Sanskrit texts, including the Rajatarangini (The History of the Kings of Kashmir) and the Ramayana, into Persian. In fact, the history of Kashmir was continued, along Kalhanas line, down to some years after the annexation of Kashmir by the Mughal emperor Akbar (1586) in the following works: Rajatarangini (by Jonaraja), Jainatarangini (by Shrivara), and Rajavalipataka (by Prajyabhatta and Shuka). Younger brother of Chandrapida and Tarapida. Then Lalitaditiya meets the Bhauttas in Baltistan in western Tibet north of Kashmir, then the Dardas in Karakoram/Himalaya, the Valukambudhi and then he encounters Strirajya, the Uttarakurus and the Pragjyotisha respectively (IV.165-175). In that officials, Abdul Fazi translated Ramayana into Persian. He was deposed by rebellious ministers, and granted asylum by a neighboring king. [a] He thinks it more likely that he was a descendant of Turkish or Persian immigrants to Swat, who had intermarried with local indigenous peoples. He established a university in Naushehra and a Darul Tarjuma. . According to Jonaraja, Shah Mir was the descendant of Partha (Arjuna) of Mahabharata fame. Verse 14. Get answers to the most common queries related to the Railway Examination Preparation. He was (I.191) the first of his race. His Dvity Rjataragin can be a continu Answer. After his family, Godhara of another family ruled (I.95). Published online by Cambridge University Press: Check ' ' translations into Persian. Nothing is known about his origin. This refers to the fact that the power had passed to the brothers of a queen, who was born in a family of spirit-distillers. Zain ul Abidin, a 15th century ruler of Kashmir, appointed scribes to translate the Mahabharata and Kalhana's Rajatarangini into Persian with the aim that these translations would give an insight into Hindu philosophy and culture to the rest of the world. Postmodernism refers to mid to late 20th century. Examples translated by humans: MyMemory, World's Largest Translation Memory. But with a small army, he fought and defeated the whole army of Kashgar. The summary is from J.C. Dutt's translation. His access to minute details of contemporary court intrigues was almost direct: his father and uncle were both in the Kashmir court. [14], Shah Mir worked to establish Islam in Kashmir and was aided by his descendant rulers, specially Sikandar Butshikan. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. During the reign of Zain-ul-Abideen, the eighth Sultan of Kashmir, Mulla Ahmad translated Kalhana's Rajatarangini into Persian. His family ruled for many generations. [19], Jonaraja and later Muslim chroniclers accuse Sikandar of terminating Kashmir's longstanding syncretic culture by persecuting Pandits and destroying numerous Hindu shrines; Suhabhat a Brahman neo-convert and Sikandar's Chief Counsel is particularly blamed for having instigated him. Suvrata's poem, though it has obtained celebrity, does not show dexterity in the exposition of the subject-matter, as it is rendered troublesome [reading] by misplaced learning. Kalhana's work uses Kali and Laukika (or Saptarishi) calendar eras: the ascension year in CE, as given below, has been calculated by Dutt based on Kalhana's records. Son of Lalitaditya and Kamaladevi. He assigned the work to a few officials to translate the Sanskrit books Rajatarangini, Ramayana and Mahabharata into the Persian language, the literary language of the Mughal court. . [8] Aryarajas were mostly Hindus. In 1546, after Humayun recovered Kabul, Haidar removed Nazuk Shah and struck coins in the name of the Mughal emperor. Complete Answer: In 1574 Akbar began a Maktab Khana or a place of interpretation works in Fatehpur Sikri. As history of Kashmir, it has its undoubted deficiencies in terms of conventional chronology and the complex tapestry of myth and legend that it has largely woven together as content, but then After ruling indirectly and directly. Barring a successful invasion of Ladakh, Sikandar did not annex any new territory. Jizya was abolished too in his command. [15], He was the only Shah Mir ruler to keep Hindu courtiers in his court. The kings of Kashmir described in the Rajatarangini are given below. "useRatesEcommerce": false On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. By looking at the inscriptions recording the consecretations of temples and grants by former kings, at laudatory inscriptions and at written works, the trouble arising from many errors has been overcome. She was pregnant at the time of her husband's death, and Krishna helped her ascend the throne. After his death, the queen committed. Usurped the throne, claiming to be a descendant of Yashaskara. [Studia Indologica Universitatis Halensis 7], SlajeWalter", "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Sultans of Kashmir", Baharistan-i-Shahi: A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shah_Mir_dynasty&oldid=1141211558, Tomb of the Mother of Zain-ul-Abidin in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, This page was last edited on 23 February 2023, at 23:00. Hostname: page-component-7fc98996b9-5r7zs They accepted that this late work was a one-of-a-kind exemption in 3,000 years of Sanskrit abstract culture, which they blamed for totally inadequate regarding a feeling of history even as it had large amounts of sacred writing and folklore. Made king by Sukhavarman, the son of Utpala. It was translated into Persian by the orders of the later Muslim ruler Zain-ul-Abidin. For instance, Marcus Aurel Stein (1900) thought the way of talking and instructional pieces of the Rajatarangini that were in kvya style was essentially detached with the story legitimate, which was recorded, while Buhler arraigned the retreat to legend and fantasy as delivering the sequence of a huge piece of the message worthless and its creator suspect. The real power lay in the hands of a noble named Gargachandra. The only significance of his rule is that the Sufi saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani arrived at Kashmir in his reign. Fairness: That noble-minded author is alone worthy of praise whose word, like that of a judge, keeps free from love or hatred in relating the facts of the past. The Hindu Centre for Politics and Public Policy, Supreme Court forms expert panel to probe any regulatory failure on Adani issue, India makes renewed push for consensus at G20 Foreign Ministers meeting, Hindenburg Research report on Adani Group | Supreme Court verdict on expert committee on March 2, High debt on Vedanta books puts investors on tenterhooks, Employees Provident Fund: How to activate UAN online, 1947: Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act passed, RMA 0-1 FCB, El Clasico highlights: Barcelona leads on aggregate after beating Real Madrid courtesy of a Militao own goal. Look through examples of translation in sentences, listen to pronunciation and learn grammar. No examples found, consider adding one please. This too appears to be a reference to the ice lingam at Amarnath. Rajatarangini 's first translation into a foreign language was as long ago as in the first decade of the 13th century, by Haidar Malik into Persian. [5] The total reign of the following kings is mentioned as 1266 years. [6], The Gonanda dynasty ruled Kashmir for 1002 years. From there, Buddhism spread to several other adjoining regions including Central Asia, Tibet and China. Sikander Lodi was succeeded on the throne in 1489. Cite earlier authors: The oldest extensive works containing the royal chronicles [of Kashmir] have become fragmentary in consequence of [the appearance of] Suvrata's composition, who condensed them in order that (their substance) might be easily remembered. By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Atharva Veda, Lilawati, Rajatarangini was translated into Persian. [9][10][11], According to Wink, Shah Mir may have been an Afghan or a Qaruna Turk, or even a Tibetan. Arthashastra , one of the first in the history of Malayalam literature. The fate of Ali Shah is uncertain: he may have died in captivity or have been put to death by Khokhar.[28]. Subscriber Only Stories View All Buy 2-year plan with SD20 code for special price Jonaraja became a Kashmiri antiquarian and Sanskrit writer. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads.

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